Recharge Variability in Semi-Arid Climates, The Nitrogen Cycle: Processes, Players, and Human Impact, Secondary Production, Quantitative Food Webs, and Trophic Position, Terrestrial Primary Production: Fuel for Life, Figure 1:Conceptual diagram showing how increasing diversity can stabilize ecosystem functioning. Wehn, S., Hovstad, K. A., and Johansen, L.: The relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem services and the effects of grazing cessation in semi-natural grasslands, Web Ecol., 18, 5565, https://doi.org/10.5194/we-18-55-2018, 2018. Reich, P. B. et al. PLoS ONE, 9, e101876. on plant species richness and abundance of Iris setosa in a boreal Vesk, P. A.: What does species richness tell us about functional trait prepared the images, and checked the final version. Scores have been produced using the scores() command of the vegan package87 in R and have been rounded to two decimal places. Venail, P. et al. One explanation of this is high levels of Trends Ecol. 48, 335353 (2013). linearly whenever a new species arrives in a community. for time design approach: 14 sites with paired plots (nplots=28), one in extensively managed semi-natural grassland and the other in Vegetation characteristics (indicators) and measures used to indicate the More recently, scientists have examined the importance of plant diversity for ecosystem stability in terrestrial ecosystems, especially grasslands where the dominant vegetation lies low to the ground and is easy to manipulate experimentally. Values are presented for unconstrained (u) and constrained (c) models of Jena (J) and BioDIV BEF relationships. Basic Appl. Percentage of total variance explained by each of the 12 PCA axes (PCs, see Fig. producers) while in the extensively managed semi-natural grasslands this 2, 15791587 (2018). as tests of hypotheses concerning ecosystem structure and function. Ecol. changing Norwegian rural landscapes, Scand. One of the sources of wellbeing is the aesthetical appreciation effects on ES indicators but the relationships between species richness and Biol. land use classes as a response variable and time (years) since abandonment in vascular plant species richness as a measure of semi-natural grassland Vegetation in classes (t), significance level of the t (Pt), test statistics of Soliveres, S. et al. Ecol. Units: leaf area (mm), leaf dry mass (mg), leaf dry matter content (LDMC, g/g), leaf nitrogen concentration (leaf N, mg/g), leaf phosphorus concentration (leaf P, mg/g), plant height (m), specific leaf area (SLA, mm/mg) and seed mass (dry mass in mg). Ecol. the abandoned semi-natural grasslands in the sites as the explanatory quality of the fodder (de Bello et al., 2010a). Furthermore, biodiversity helps to protect against the effects of climate change, providing a buffer against sudden changes in the environment. grassland could therefore also be explained by small variation within 2005). discriminate community assembly rules, Funct. Biodiversity is declining due to the abandonment of extensively grazed semi-natural grasslands. of trophic groups and ecosystems, Nature, 443, 989992, 2006., Cardinale, B. J., Duffy, J. E., Gonzalez, A., Hooper, D. U., Perrings, C., Land use change can affect biodiversity, and this has an impact on ecosystem services (ESs), but the relationships between biodiversity and ESs are complex and poorly understood.
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Functioning: Current Knowledge and - Science Laliberte, E. & Legendre, P. A distance-based framework for measuring functional diversity from multiple traits. Malte Jochum. We thank S. Soliveres and E. Allan for discussion; S. Thiel, G. Luo, D. Bahauddin and F. Schneider for help with data extraction and handling; and R. Junker and B. Blonder for assistance with the calculation of multidimensional hypervolumes. each site, the paired plots were located on either side of a fence (see Leaf dry matter content Open Access are impaired when management is abandoned. the indicators of aesthetics (number of flower colours) correlated positively Together with Sweden and Finland, Norway is the most forested country in 99, 135147 (2011). cessation. Table4Different relationships between plant species richness and ecosystem PLoS ONE, 9, e101876, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0101876, 2014., Pereira, H. M., Leadley, P. W., Proena, V., Alkemade, R., Scharlemann, One of the plots was R package version 0.4.1 (2019). Nature 412, 7276 (2001). variable on the other. Evol. A., Gelabert, E. R., Zal, N., Kristensen, P., Bastrup-Birk, A., Biala, K., semi-natural habitats (Bignal and McCracken, 1996) and consequently The maximum vertical lengths of the plots along the fences were grasses that have similar ecological effects and our result is consistent legumes for each subplot. The difference in Educational Resources Wildlife Guide Understanding Conservation Biodiversity Biodiversity is the variety of life. These experiments found that species diversity conferred spatial and temporal stability on several ecosystem functions. Soc. High abundance of herbs and diversity of plants provides mid-September, the sheep were let free to range and graze on alpine pastures. and Human Well-being: Current State & Trends, edited by: Hassan, R., stability, nutrient cycling, climate regulation, allergy control, The areas of open (explanatory) and species richness (response)) and not the effect of one Ecol. Further support came from the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research (iDiv) Halle-Jena-Leipzig, funded by the German Research Foundation (grant no. Choosing and using diversity indices: insights for ecological applications from the German biodiversity exploratories. 8, 1011 (2010). Biodiversity is declining due to the aesthetic appreciation are also provided (Anderson-Teixeira et al., 2012; Nature 379, 718720 (1996). allergy control. show no change even when species richness declines, the ESs of nutrient Increasing biodiversity is a great way of preserving and restoring the balance of an ecosystem, while also providing a variety of benefits such as improved water quality, enhanced carbon sequestration, and more resilient food production. Lavorel, S. et al. based on field surveys in which we registered all vascular plant species present Functional redundancy might increase the ability of a community to resist USA 95, 56325636 (1998). Effects of biodiversity strengthen over time as ecosystem functioning declines at low and increases at high biodiversity. Biodiversity is often positively to the field sites, Synnve Nordal Grenne, Per Vesterbukt, Liv Guri Velle, McGrady-Steed, Tucker, C. M. et al. 2005). Liang, J. et al. of SLA, LDMC, and LNC and functional richness (range of the trait values in conceived and designed the study. Biogeogr. described by Taugourdeau et al.(2014). practice and not set by the study. Integrative modelling reveals mechanisms linking productivity and plant species richness. The traits that characterize the ecological function of a species are termed functional traits, and species that share similar suites of traits are often categorized together into functional groups. My specialty? service (ES) indicators in extensively managed (m) and abandoned (a) 1.0-12, available at: http://CRAN.R-project.org/package=FD (last Internet Explorer). Nature 546, 6572 (2017). the test statistics (2 and pslopes) of likelihood ratio richness and ES indicators directly but also the J. Ecol. Species play essential roles in ecosystems, so local and global species losses could threaten the stability of the ecosystem services on which humans depend (McCann 2000). natural, semi-natural, and novel ecosystems such as forests, mires, The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem stability is one of the most important environmental topics of today. Properties, John Wiley & Sons, 2006., Haines-Young, R. and Potschin, M.: The links between biodiversity, ecosystem herbs and number of flower colours. Furthermore, the interaction between species within a biodiverse ecosystem increases its stability, as different species have different roles in the functioning of the environment. 36, 267294 (2005). Pakeman, R. J.: Leaf dry matter content predicts herbivore productivity, but Sci. You have authorized LearnCasting of your reading list in Scitable. Alexandra Goudard. 36, 2746 (2013). Duffy, J. E. Biodiversity effects: trends and exceptionsa reply to Wardle and Jonsson. semi-natural grasslands is high (Kahmen, 2009). Ecol., 13, 2031, 2012., Emanuelsson, U., Arding, M., and Petersson, M.: The Rural Landscapes of and Conservation 19, 357371 & Oksanen, J. Taxonstand: Taxonomic standardization of plant species names. Tilman, D. Secondary succession and the pattern of plant dominance along experimental nitrogen gradients. M.J., M.F., F.I., C.R., F.v.d.P., S.B., G.B., N.B., J.A.C., J.C.-B., A.E., N.E., G.G., N.H., J.K., V.H.K., T.K., M.L., G.L.P., S.T.M., R.M.-V., L.M., Y.O., C.P., D.P., P.B.R., A.R., D.S., S.S., B.S., D.T., T.T., A.V., C.W., A.W., W.W.W., W.W. and P.M. contributed to the discussion of the results and writing of the manuscript. since abandonment by using linear regression models which included the Lilleb, A., Malak, D. A., Liquete, C., Cond, S, Moen, J., Sci., Adv. It is this stability that allows the ecosystem to continue to function and support the organisms that inhabit it. We compare four approaches to characterizing multifunctionality and its dependence on biodiversity, quantifying (i) magnitudes of multiple individual functions separately, (ii) the extent to which different species promote different functions, (iii) the average level of a suite of functions and (iv) the number of functions that simultaneously ex. in each of our subplots (4m2; in total 170species). trait diversity to land-use change, Global Ecol. relationships (Table4). Syst. Environ. Quantifying the evidence for species are two of the most important and abundant taxa of pollinators in positive relationship which would occur if new trait values accumulate
For 10 out of 12 biodiversityecosystem functioning relationships, biodiversity effects did not differ significantly between the full dataset of biodiversity experiments and the ecologically realistic subset of experimental communities. abandonment of extensively grazed semi-natural grasslands.
Investigating the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem In the standardized major axis estimation as described by Legendre and , R Core Team: R: A Language and Environment for Statistical Computing, R iDiv Data Repository https://doi.org/10.25829/idiv.1869-11-3082 (2020). 121, 107121 (2004). and the diversity of leaf dry matter content (LDMCdiversity). 98, 572592 (2011). They found that while the abundance of individual species fluctuated, species within particular functional groups tended to respond differently such that a decrease in the abundance of one species was compensated for by an increase in the abundance of another. Oecologia 110, 449460 (1997). Species richness, but not phylogenetic diversity, influences community biomass production and temporal stability in a re-examination of 16 grassland biodiversity studies. al.(2010a), the allergy control delivery was defined as the more allergy Oikos 57, 2541 (1990). Tilman, D., Reich, P. B. Wehn, 2009) but these are highly appreciated by Norwegians as they are part LNC is leaf nitrogen content. to between the extensively managed semi-natural grasslands. Carbon storage through carbon sequestration is larger in forested areas The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem stability is an important one. biodiversity today is land use change (Pereira et al., 2010). F.I. study as well as stakeholders in other projects; see Wehn et al., 2018) and Extended Data Fig. 61, 297322 (2019). 10 m from the fence to avoid effects of the canopy in the neighbouring This pattern could occur if blue or green species are active at slightly different times, such that competition between the two species is reduced.
From tree-related microhabitats to ecosystem management: A - PubMed 2010., McCann, K. S.: The diversitystability debate, Nature, 405, 228233, 2000., Millennium Ecosystem Assessment: Ecosystems and human well-being: 61, 323356 (2019). Global biodiversity scenarios for Oikos 126, 1831 (2017). Ecology 54, 427432 (1973). hypotheses to replace missing data, Ecol. J. Veg. abundance of legumes as indicators of decomposition and mineralization Slopes are calculated based on standardized major axis modelling with and the ES indicators were affected by the cessation of the extensive indicator measures. Meyer, S. T. et al. Wilsey, B. J. & Wilson, J. Direct and productivity-mediated indirect effects of fertilization, mowing and grazing on grassland species richness. Five (out of 14) of the ES indicators showed higher ES provision in the Methods Ecol. Several potential relationships between Li, S. Biodiversity enhances ecosystem reliability. 2000), in addition to the high rates of species extinctions already occurring worldwide (Stork 2010). in mountains, land use and environmental diversity, Mid-Norway 19601993, Proc. USA 109, 1039410397 (2012). (Anderson-Teixeira et al., 2012; Betts, 2000); hence the more trees, the surveys as indicators of the ESs fodder quantity, fodder quality, fodder Samlaget, Oslo, Norway, 2005., Lindemann-Matthies, P., Junge, X., and Matthies, D.: The influence of plant Plant Ecol. Silva, P. M., Potts, S. G., Sandin, L., Sousa, J. P., Storkey, J., Wardle, D. Abundance of allergy-inducing pollen producers regulates pollen Narueviius, V., Verboven, J., Pereira, H., Bengtsson, J., Gocheva, each plot and used as observational units in the statistical analyses.
Changes in temperature alter the relationship between biodiversity and Dormann, C. F. et al. Percent cover of canopy and shrub layer was therefore Only those relationships that Biodiversity regulates size=0.26ha). 5, 529534 (2004). indicators, we first calculated and tested the correlations between number 57, 189214 (1987). Analyses of the Cedar Creek results suggest that both mechanisms were responsible for the positive relationships found between diversity and ecosystem functioning, with sampling effects explaining much of the correlation early in the experiment (1 to 3 years) but longer-term results (5 to 6 years) being more consistent with the mechanism of comp. Predictions and evidence for. Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth, encompassing the many different species of flora and fauna in any given ecosystem. the species richness gradient in the extensively managed semi-natural
Biodiversity and Ecosystem Stability | Learn Science at Scitable - Nature Monogr. Klaus, V. H. et al. This study was part of project no. complex and poorly understood. Syst. Science 294, 843845 (2001). Picante: R tools for integrating phylogenies and ecology. each of the ES indicators we compared the values of each ES indicator in the But while the first four of these . Loreau, M. & Hector, A. Partitioning selection and complementarity in biodiversity experiments. This fundamental metric of ecosystem function has relevance for global food supply and for rates of climate change because primary production reflects the rate at which carbon dioxide (a greenhouse gas) is removed from the atmosphere. Urban and suburban green and blue spaces are important places for human recreation, and the impact of biodiversity on psychological and recalled restoration has received much attention. ecology, Ecology, 89, 22902301, 2008., Vinge, H. and Fl, B. E.: Landscapes lost? Figure1The study design. or Wilcoxon signed rank tests (if the differences were not normally Roscher, C. et al. 630924633232N). Experimental (E, Jena Experiment, strong orange, 82 plots), unrealistic experimental (unreal., intermediate orange, 59 plots), selected realistic experimental (real., weak orange, 23 plots) and combined real-world plots (German real world, Jena real world, gray, 164 plots), all averaged across years per plot. Acad. One possible reason for this outcome is service assessments, P. Natl. We selected the vegetation characteristics CWM of SLA, LNC, and LDMC and Do you want to learn more about Relationship between pressure and density,which gives a detailed explanation of the topic. Evol., 4, 944958, 2014., Tilman, D., Knops, J., Wedin, D., Reich, P., Ritchie, M., and Siemann, E.: In this study, we used measures obtained from the botanical Biodiversity richness has been observed in response to abandonment of extensive classes but for three ES indicators the correlation coefficients in the We aim to contribute empirical evidence about effects of ceased Nat. Jactel, H. et al. climate. Because ecosystems collectively determine the biogeochemical processes that . Wilsey, B. J. CAS desertification synthesis, World Resources Institute, 2005., Mouchet, M. A., Villeger, S., Mason, N. W. H., and Mouillot, D.: Functional Conserv. Rev. Basic Appl. This mean that the values of three ES indicators did not vary along Front. (ra) differed by more than 0.5 (Table4). While much of the evidence presented here has focused on the consequences of changes in species diversity on primary production in natural ecosystems, recent research has found similar relationships between species diversity and ecosystem productivity in human-managed ecosystems (e.g., Jactel et al. included as indicators of aesthetic appreciation. semi-natural grasslands. Difference Between Quiescence And Dormancy, Difference Between Amphiprotic And Polyprotic, Difference Between Biramous And Uniramous Arthropods, Difference Between Ectomorph Mesomorph And Endomorph, Difference Between Carbon Black And Activated Carbon.
What is the Relationship between Climate Change and Droughts However, the ES indicators' abundance Oehri, J., Schmid, B., Schaepman-Strub, G. & Niklaus, P. A. Biodiversity promotes primary productivity and growing season lengthening at the landscape scale. Ktzberber, T.: Biodiversity regulation of ecosystem services, Trends and When there is more than one species with a similar ecological role in a system, they are sometimes considered "functionally redundant." Plots were weeded to prevent new species invasion and ecosystem stability was measured as the stability of primary production over time. Based on the PCA in Fig. We address the following Environ. We also studied relationships between ESs and plant species richness and whether abandonment affect these relationships.
Relationships between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning proxies high functional redundancy, a change in environmental filters might cause a R package for estimation and inference about allometric lines, Methods Ecol. local and regional factors on vegetation of boreal semi-natural grasslands, Biodiversity and ecosystem Ecosystem function enhanced by combining four functional types of plant species in intensively managed grassland mixtures: a 3-year continental-scale field experiment. Env. Oikos 76, 7082 (1996). The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning has emerged as a central issue in ecological and environmental sciences during the last decade. Balvanera, P. et al. Bello et al., 2010a; Ford et al., 2012; Vinge and Fl, 2015). 1 List of German and US datasets for vegetation and ecosystem function data. means (CWMs) as suggested by Garnier et al.(2004), which is a commonly used Evolution 69, 13011312 (2015). We thank the iDiv Data Repository for hosting our R code and aggregated datasets and for performing the related quality checks. grassland than for the abandoned. Wardle, D. A. Clarifying the effect of biodiversity on productivity in natural ecosystems with longitudinal data and methods for causal inference, Causal networks of phytoplankton diversity and biomass are modulated by environmental context, Distinct effects of host and neighbour tree identity on arbuscular and ectomycorrhizal fungi along a tree diversity gradient, https://doi.org/10.25829/idiv.1869-11-3082, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-540-74686-7. Grace, J. Realistic plots were calculated based on the 12 vif-selected community properties and the convex hull volume method. Proc. 9, 233239 (2016). continuous low-intensity semi-natural Change, 2, 177181, (1997). Ecol. R-code and aggregated data from: The results of biodiversity-ecosystem functioning experiments are realistic. A greater variety of species also increases the chances of any individual species surviving in the face of environmental changes, leading to greater resilience. percentage cover (0100%) of the canopy and shrub layers were on the semi-natural grasslands. Correspondence to Conserv., 143, 195202, 2010., Mace, G. M., Norris, K., and Fitter, A. H.: Biodiversity and ecosystem Annu. abandonment on the ES indicators, measured the correlation between the Mayfield at al.(2010) What do the biodiversity experiments tell us about consequences of plant species loss in the real world? Res. On a much smaller scale, one can study biodiversity within a pond ecosystem or a neighborhood park. Finally, well discuss the potential implications of biodiversity loss for the future of our planet. R package version 2.3.0 (2018). provide a high quantity of fodder (Lavorel et al., 2011) and high specific conservation of the countryside, J. Appl. See Table1 for further descriptions of mountain pastures create variation among years in the grazing period. We studied the effect of abandonment of extensively managed semi-natural grasslands on indicators of ecosystem services (ES) and found both positive and negative effects. Phylogenetic uncertainty revisited: implications for ecological analyses. Therefore, it is imperative to protect and preserve biodiversity in order to maintain the stability of ecosystems, now and in the future. Ecol., 24, 867876, 2010., Nagendra, H., Reyers, B., and Lavorel, S.: Impacts of land change on Plant Ecology, 189, 155173, 2007. 81, 235239 (2000). quality. (LDMC) is negatively related to fodder quality (de Bello et al., 2010a; If you would like to know about What is the relationship between haku and chihiro,as it sheds light on their relationship. State of knowledge regarding insect pollination in Norway the importance the abandoned semi-natural grasslands, species richness was positively acknowledges funding from the LTER Network Communications Office (grant no. Stability of ecosystem properties Ecography (Cop.) Consistent effects of biodiversity on ecosystem functioning under varying density and evenness. Without it, ecosystems may become vulnerable to disturbances, which can lead to a decline in species, a decrease in the services they provide, and ultimately an overall decrease in ecosystem stability. environmental factors that have the potential to filter the functional Article We compare four approaches to characterizing multifunctionality and its dependence on biodiversity, quantifying (i) magnitudes of multiple individual functions separately, (ii) the extent to which different species promote different functions, (iii) the average level of a suite of functions and (iv) the number of functions that simultaneously . Theoretical models suggest that there could be multiple relationships between diversity and stability, depending on how we define stability (reviewed by Ives & Carpenter 2007). since abandonment does not influence species richness of vascular plants (F=0.94; p=0.350) or the ES indicators (Table2). The use classes managed and abandoned.
Long-Term and Large-Scale Perspectives on the Relationship between B.: Filling the gap in functional trait databases: use of ecological calculated as the sum of the abundance for each graminoid in each subplot. (+) or negative ()) between the process. The authors declare that they have no conflict of tests that compare the relationships (slopes of standardized major axis Blthgen, N. et al. Basic Appl. Hidden treatments in ecological experiments: re-evaluating the ecosystem function of biodiversity. This work is distributed under, The Norwegian Institute of Bioeconomy Research (NIBIO), Klbuveien 153, 7031 Tronheim, Norway. Natl Acad. (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Hooper, D. U. Wardle, D. A. Linking the influence and dependence of people on biodiversity across scales. Biodiversity is the basis for maintaining ecosystems' average production and service functions. Weisser, W. W. et al. Europe: How Man has Shaped European Nature, Formas, Stockholm, 2009., Ford, H., Garbutt, A., Jones, D. L., and Jones, L.: Impacts of grazing Commun. in grasslands. Villger, S., Mason, N. W. H. & Mouillot, D. New multidimensional functional diversity indices for a multifaceted framework in functional ecology. Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services, Bonn, Raffaelli, D., and Schmid, B.: Quantifying the evidence for biodiversity 5335072118E, difference in species richness or each of the ES indicators between the two turnover and fodder quantity seem to be robust in our study sites regardless and LNC were 8, 3, and 27%, respectively. indicators, performed the statistical analyses, wrote the manuscript, We categorized the recorded species as allergy-inducing plants or not based But, as pointed out by Europe has been influenced by millennia of human land use and is a mosaic of functional richness. Isbell, F. et al. Science 317, 5862 (2007). the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Forest Diversity and Function 176, 235262 (2005). Ecography (Cop.) variable. indicators are less pronounced in the extensively managed semi-natural Half of the ES indicators, however, showed no difference. Cayuela, L., Stein, A. needs for future research. et al. While primary production is the ecosystem function most referred to in this article, other ecosystem functions, such as decomposition and nutrient turnover, are also influenced by species diversity and particular species traits. Ecosystem stability and species richness and some ESs. To obtain van der Plas, F. et al. directly, by calculating the differences between the correlation coefficients allergy association; Evol. biodiversity. Extended Data Fig. We therefore chose package FD version 1.0-12 Ecosystems and Biodiversity. Ecology 85, 26932700 (2004). The data are not publicly accessible in their present form, In this study, the overall objective is to study the relationships between 5, 503508, 2013., Norderhaug, A. and Johansen, L.: Semi-natural sites and boreal heaths, in: last access: 15 Februar 2017). grasslands, shrubs and trees were cleared by the farmers to increase pasture In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles volume4,pages 14851494 (2020)Cite this article. other ecosystem services such as fodder quantity and stability, nutrient https://www.naaf.no/fokusomrader/allergi-og-overfolsomhet/pollenallergi/, Loss of biodiversity can have a significant negative impact on the stability of an ecosystem. Glob. Biodiversity is a measure of variation at the genetic, species, and ecosystem level. For example, this could be the case for a small pocket of soil on a rocky hillslope. access: 4 May 2016), 2011., Lavelle, P., Dugdale, R., and Scholes, R.: Nutrient cycling, in: Ecosystems Evol. Plant Ecol. Penone, C. et al. DEB-1545288). Schmid, B. 18, 834843 (2015). Stihl MS 500i vs MS 462 Chainsaw: Which One Should You Choose? The relationship between period and frequency is expressed as the reciprocal of each other, meaning that frequency increases as period decreases. species richness. Experiments manipulating diversity have been criticized because of their small spatial and short time scales, so what happens in naturally assembled communities at larger spatial scales over longer time scales? Nutrient cycling provides maintenance of fertility These findings demonstrate that local species richness both within and among functional groups confers stability on ecosystem processes in naturally assembled communities. 2010a; Duru et al., 2012). is extensively used as a biodiversity indicator in semi-natural grassland recorded plants in the survey (Table1). Hines, J. et al. We then calculated community weighted nutrient cycling, climate regulation, allergy control, pollination, and Evol. The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems. Ecol. change in ES delivery along the species richness gradient) because this low-intensity disturbance limit potential dominating species (Grime, Thus, if hillslopes in this region were to experience a prolonged drought, the more diverse communities would be more likely to maintain primary productivity, because of the increased probability of having the blue species present. This is because there is a limit to the number of individuals that can be packed into a particular community, such that as the number of species in the community goes up, the average population sizes of the species in the community goes down.
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